Can Change the World Again. |
A Critical History of Philosophy.
By Asa Mahan
1883.
IN THE SERIES OF
THE WORKS OF ASA MAHAN.
VOLUME III.
Vol. VIII. Autobiography: Intellectual, Moral, and Spiritual.
Other volumes can be found on the CD
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Copyright © 2002
MANUFACTURED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
A
CRITICAL HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY.
BY
REV. ASA MAHAN, D.D., LL.D.,
IN TWO VOLUMES.
VOL. I. & II.
NEW YORK:
1883.
FOREWORD BY THE EDITOR AND PUBLISHER.
CONTENTS.
o
PAGE
SECTION I.
THE DESIGN AND PLAN OF THE WORK 41
What we propose to accomplish, and by what Method 42
SECTION II.
PHILOSOPHYIT'S NATURE AND TRUE AND PROPER SPHERE IN THE EMPIRE OF
WORLD THOUGHT 43
What does Philosophy imply? 45 Principles as distinguished from mere Assumptions
Opinions, Beliefs, Conjectures, etc., as distinguished from Facts of Real 49 Intuitions and Forms of Belief which take rise from Intuitions 50
Condition of Real Knowledge 50
SECTION III.
FOUR, AND BUT FOUR REALITIES, VIZ., SPIRIT MATTER TIME, AND SPACE, ARE
REPRESENTED, OR ARE REPRESENTABLE, IN HUMAN THOUGHT 54 Apprehending them 57 These Four Realities are apprehended by Universal Mind as actually Known
Realities, nor can our Apprehensions of any one of them be changed, modified,
or displaced from Human Thought 64
PAGE
Our Apprehensions of these Realities have all the Fundamental Characteristics will Acknowledge 68 Doubtful 68 Apprehensions 70 Apprehensions 70
SECTION IV.
ORIGIN, GENESIS, AND CHARACTER OF ALL ACTUAL AND CONCEIVABLE SYSTEMS OF
PHILOSOPHY 81
PAGE
The Condition on which this Problem can be Solved 104 RealismThe System Defined 106
SECTION V.
MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS AND SUGGESTIONS.
Materialism, Idealism, and Scepticism all constructed throughout after one and Constitution of Systems of Knowledge 115 ___________
THE HINDU PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION I.
EXPOSITION OF THE GENERAL DOCTRINE OF THE VEDAS 128
SECTION II.
THE MIMANSA AND VEDANTA SYSTEMS 135
The Vedanta System 135
PAGE
The Fixed Method of Pantheism as seen in the Light of the Immutable
Principles of True Science 146
Conditions on which the Race can enjoy the Benefits of 'the Revelation of
SECTION III.
THE SEMI-ORTHODOX SYSTEMS 148
SECTION IV. THE VAIESCHIKA SYSTEM OF KANADA 156
THE HINDU LOGIC 157
THE HETERODOX SYSTEMS.
The Djainas and Buddhists 160 GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE INDIAN PHILOSOPHY 167
THE CHINESE PHILOSOPHY 169
THE PERSIAN SYSTEM 170
SECTION XL
THE EGYPTIAN SYSTEM 173
SECTION XII.
GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE ORIENTAL SYSTEM 175 PAGE
2. Relations of these Systems to the Doctrine of the Soul as Distinct from all
Material Existences, and as Immortal 180
3. The Relations of these Systems to the Doctrine of Right and Wrong, of Moral
Obligation, Moral Desert, and Retribution 181 these Systems 183
Vol. II. The Science of Intellectual Philosophy.
Vol. III. A Critical History of Philosophy.
Vol. IV. The Science of Natural Philosophy.
Vol. V. The Doctrine of the Will.
Vol. VI. Science of Moral Philosophy.
Vol. VII. The Science of Logic.
________
Vol. IX. Out of Darkness Into Light.
Vol. X. Baptism of the Holy Spirit.
Vol. XI. Misunderstood Texts.
Vol. XII. Christian Perfection.
Vol. XIII. Lectures on the 9th of Romans.
Vol. XIV. The True Believer.
Vol. XV. Life Thoughts on the Rest of Faith.
Vol. XVI. The Phenomena of Spiritism.
Vol. XVII. Modern Mysteries Examined and Exposed.
Vol. XVIII. A Critical History of the Late American War.
REPUBLISHED BY THE EDITOR.
RICHARD FRIEDRICH OF ALETHEA IN HEART MINISTRIES,
1350 PARKWAY DR. NE 303
GRAND RAPIDS, MI 49525 USA.
Reproduced from the edition of 1883, New York, without altering anything but format and page numbers.
Richard Max Friedrich
All Rights Reserved
'THE SCIENCE OF INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY' 'THE SYSTEM OF MENTAL PHILOSOPHY,' 'THE SCIENCE OF LOGIC,' 'THE SCIENCE OF NATURAL THEOLOGY,' ETC.
Not harsh and crabbed, as dull fools suppose,
But musical as is Apollo's lute,
And a perpetual feast of nectar'd sweets,
Where no crude surfeit reigns.'
PHILLIPS & HUNT.
CINCINNATI:
WALDEN & STOWE.
Relations of these two Forms of Knowledge to each other 45
Criteria of True and False Systems of Science 47
Principles and Facts of True Science, as distinguished from Assumptions,
Opinions, Conjectures, etc. 47
Knowledge
The Question, What can we Know?how Answered 51
Conditions, Extent, and Limits of Valid Knowledge as Affirmed in all Systems
of Materialism and Idealism 51
Remarks on these Hypotheses 52
Nature, Character, and Mutual Relations of these Four Realities 55
All these Realities are distinctly represented in Human Thought 55
No other Reality is or can be represented in Human Thought 56
These Realities wholly unlike each other 57
These Realities differ equally relatively to our Manner of Perceiving and
These Realities sustain to each other fixed and definable Relations 58
These Apprehensions not Self-contradictory 60
Necessary Deductions from the Principles and Facts just evinced as True 63
of Forms of Valid Knowledge, Characteristics which True Science must and
I. The Validity of these Apprehensions cannot be Disproved, or rendered
1. Such Forms of Knowledge not Naturally Impossible 69
2. Facts in Disproof cannot be found outside of the Sphere of these
3. Facts in Disproof cannot be found in the Relations of these Apprehensions
to one another 70
4. Such Facts cannot be found in what is Intrinsic in any of these
II. Our Apprehensions of Space, Time, Matter, and Spirit are, in all their
essential elements and characteristics, distinct, separate, and dissimilar
from all Assumptions, Beliefs, and Opinions, which may or may not be true 73
III. These Apprehensions have all Possible Positive Characteristics of Real
Absolute Knowledge 75
Necessary Ideas 75
Contingent IdeasMatter and Spirit 76
The Diverse Systems Defined 81
Materialism 82
Necessary Problems which this Hypothesis involves 83
IdealismDoctrine Explained 86
The Theory of External Perception 86
Problems common to Idealism in all its Forms 88
Ideal Dualism 89
Problems specially pertaining to Ideal Dualism 89
Idealism Proper 90
Subjective Idealism 91
Problems of Subjective Idealism 91
Pantheism Proper 92
Special Assumptions of Pantheism and Pure Idealism 93
Necessary Problems of Pantheism 96
Pure Idealism 97
General and Particular Problems of Pure Idealism 97
Relations to each other of the Hypotheses of Materialism and Idealism 99
ScepticismThe Doctrine Defined 102
Doctrine common to this and other Systems 103
The Grand Problem of this System 103
The Sceptical Assumption Refuted 105
The General Problem of this System 106
Particular Special Problems of the System 107
Realism Verified 108
Postulates common to all Systems 108
Criteria of Forms of Valid Knowledge as already Stated 109
'Our Knowledge of Space and Time Verified 109
Our Apprehensions of Matter and Spirit Verified 110
the same MethodBegging the Question 111
The proper place and influence of the different Mental Faculties in the
Secret of the Power of Scepticism 119
The Secret of the Power of Systematized Thought, and the only Proper Method
of Examining such Systems 122
The True Philosopher and Pedant distinguished 123
When should the Deductions and Opinions of Philosophers have Weight with us? 125
Prudential Considerations 126
Plan of our Future Inquiries 127
PART I.
CHAPTER I.
Sources of this Philosophy 128
General Reflections on the Hindu Doctrine 130
Philosophers and Religionists of India 133
Specific Expositions of the Vedanta System 138
Ancient and Modern Pantheism 141
Absolute Science' 147
The Sankhya of Kapila 148
The Sankhya and Vedanta Systems compared 151
Hindu and Modern Dualism 152
THE YOGA SHASTRA OF PATANDJALI 154
SECTION V.
SECTION VI.
SECTION VII.
I. The System of the Djainas 161
II. The Buddhists 161
Buddhist Systems of Philosophy 164
Pore Idealism 165
Subjective Idealism 165
The Buddhist Material Systems 166
Relations of the Buddhist and Hindu Systems to each other 166
SECTION VIII.
SECTION IX.
SECTION X.
Zoroaster as a Teacher of Morals and Philosophy 170
The Cosmology of the 'Boundehesch' 171
1. The Connection of these Systems with Religion 175
Relation of Oriental Religions to the Primitive Religion of the Race 176
Monotheism the Original Faith of the Race 177
4. Relations of these Systems to the Doctrine of Human Sinfulness 181
5. The Idea of Salvation from Sin the common Element of all these Religious
Systems 182
6. The Idea of Human Existence and Salvation, as it Appears in the Light of all
7. What has the Race Reason to Expect from the Anti-Theistic Philosophies
which are being Commended to Human Regard? 184
PART II.
THE GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
SECTION I.
THE RELATIONS OF THE GREEKS TO THE ORIENTAL NATIONS 188
Correspondences and Differences between the Grecian and the Oriental Systems 189
SECTION II.
THE RELIGION OF THE GREEKS 190
Grecian Polytheism 190
The Monotheism of Greece 191
SECTION III.
NATURE CHARACTER, AND MUTUAL RELATIONS OF KNOWLEDGE À PRIORI AND
À POSTERIORI. THESE FORMS OF KNOWLEDGE DISTINGUISHED AND DEFINED 196
Relations between Knowledge à priori and à posteriori 198
Necessary Deductions from the Preceding Analysis 200
All Questions Pertaining to Ontology belong exclusively to the à posteriori, or
Mixed Sciences 206
By no possibility can the Knowledge affirmed be obtained of any such Substances
or Causes 211
SECTION IV.
MYSTERY AND ABSURDITY DEFINED AND DISTINGUISHED 213
Existence involves a Mystery 215
Bearing of these Conclusions upon our former Deductions 216
The Existence of a Power of Knowledge involves a Mystery equally profound 216
SECTION V.
IN WHAT SENSE AND FORM IS HUMAN KNOWLEDGE RELATIVE AND PHENOMENAL? 219
In Phenomena, Objects are Manifested as they are, and not as they are not 219
PAGE
The Dogma that all our World-Knowledge is mere illusory Appearance 220
The Real Relativity of Knowledge 221
SECTION VI.
Physiology AND METAPHYSICS 224
SECTION VII.
FORMS OF PROGRESSION COMMON TO ANTI-THEISTIC SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY 226
SECTION VIII.
THE SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY IN GREECE 228
CHAPTER I.
THE PRE-SOCRATIC EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION I.
THE IONIC SCHOOLTHALES OF MILETUS 230
Exposition of the Doctrines of Thales 230
The Cosmological Doctrine and Teachings of Thales 230
The Theistic Doctrine and Teachings of Thales 231
Anaximander and Anaximenes 234
Anaxagoras 235
Mr. Lewes corrected 238
Observations upon the Teachings and Doctrines of the Ionic School 239
SECTION II.
THE ITALIC SCHOOL 241
Pythagoras 241
SECTION III.
THE ELEATYC SCHOOL 244
The Eleatic Metaphysical School 244
Mr. Lewes' Vindication of Zeno's Argument 249
The Method of this School 251
The Physical School of Elea 251
Exposition of the System of these Philosophers 252
General Reflections upon this System 254
SECTION IV.
THE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL 259
Heraclitus and Empedocles 259
SECTION V.
THE SOPHISTS 261
Common Doctrine of the Sophists 262
The Method of the Sophists 263
PAGE
The Sources of the wide-spread Influence of the Sophists 264
General Reflections suggested by the Preceding Analysis of The Pre-Socratic
Systems of Philosophy 265
CHAPTER II.
THE SOCRATIC EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY 271
The Object of Philosophy 271
The Immutable Characteristics of all Explicable Facts and Relations 273
The Great Problem of Philosophy 274
The Relations of Psychology to Philosophy 274
Intellectual Faculties, Primary and Secondary 274
Relations of these Faculties to Science 277
Comparative Validity and Authority of these Faculties 278
SECTION I.
SOCRATES 279
Common-Sense 282
The Era of the Public Teaching of Socrates 284
The Method of Socrates 285
Special Doctrines Taught by Socrates 289
The Demon of Socrates 292
SECTION II.
PLATO 293
Plato as Contrasted with Socrates, Aristotle, and Anaxagoras 293
Plato's Method 295
General Characteristics of Plato as a Thinker 297
Doctrines which, as all Authorities admit, Plato did hold and teach 298
The Psychology of Plato 301
Reason and Judgment 303
Sensation, or Sense-Perception 303
General Remarks upon this Psychology 305
Plato's Doctrine of Ideas 311
In what Language and Form Plato has stated his own Doctrine 312
Plato's Real Doctrine of Ideas 314
Consequences which follow from each Exposition which has been given of Plato's
Doctrine of Ideas 316
Consequences resulting from the Exposition which affirms Plato's Ideas to he
'the Eternal Thoughts of the Divine Intellect' 317
Consequences resulting from the Doctrine that Plato's Ideas are Real Separate
Existences 318
PAGE
General Remarks upon Plato as a World-Thinker 319
Plato, when in the Sphere of Socratic Thought, and when Philosophizing 319
Plato, as furnishing another example of the validity of á priori insight and of the
á priori method of Philosophizing 320
The Faculty, or Faculties, actually employed by Plato and other Philosophers
who adopt the á priori method when Philosophizing 323
Plato as a Logician 324
The Doctrine of Innate Ideas 325
The Idea of Reason as a Faculty possessed only by Philosophers 327
Three great Central Truths, for the first scientific Enunciation of which the
World is indebted to Plato 328
SECTION III.
ARISTOTLE 331
Aristotle's Classification of the Sciences 331
Questions at Issue between Aristotle and Plato 331
The Doctrine of Individual Existence as Opposed to that of Ideas 332
The Validity of Sensation, or Sense-Perception 333
The Summum Bonum 335
Doctrine of Reminiscence 336
The Universe as an External Existence, and as Organized in Time 337
Aristotle's Logic 337
Fundamental Error of Mill in his Logic 342
Aristotle's Formula pertaining to the Origin, Source, and Consequent Elements,
of all our Knowledge 344
Aristotle's Ethics 346
'The First Philosophy,' or Metaphysics of Aristotle 347
Aristotle's Proof of the Divine Existence 348
Evidence of the Being, Perfections, and Providence of a Personal God, as
deducible from the Platonic, Aristotelian, and the only other conceivable
standpoint 350
Argument in the most general Form 350
The Argument as Deducible from the Platonic Standpoint 352
Argument from the Aristotelian Standpoint 352
The Argument as Deducible from the only remaining Standpoint, no other
Hypothesis being Conceivable 354
SECTION IV.
THE EPICUREANS 357
Perceived and Implied Forms of Knowledge 357
Test of Valid Knowledge 358
The General Psychology of Epicurus 360
Epicurean Doctrine of Creation 361
PAGE
SECTION V.
THE STOICS 365
Criteria of Truth according to the Stoics 365
The Physics of the Stoics 366
Some of the Special Doctrines of the Stoics 368
The Ethics of the Stoics 368
CHAPTER III.
THE DECLINE OF THE GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
SECTION I.
CAUSES OF THIS DECLINE 370
Incidental Causes of the Decline of the Grecian Philosophy 372
SECTION II.
THE SCEPTICAL PHILOSOPHY. 375
The Issue as Stated by Mr. Lewes 375
What Criterion is there of the Truth of our Knowledge? 375
Erroneous Statements and Expositions of Mr. Lewes 376
Criteria of Valid Knowledge 379
Necessary Deductions from a Rigid Application of these Criteria 381
The Sceptical Doctrine Self-contradictory 384
The Sceptical Distinction between Phenomena and Noumena 385
Observations upon the Sceptical Doctrine on these Subjects 386
Positive Sides of the Sceptical Philosophy 388
Necessary Deductions from Fundamental Principles of this System 389
DECLINE OF THE GRECIAN PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION I.
THE PYRRHONISTS 393
The Peculiar Form of the Pyrrhonic Scepticism 396
The Consummation sought by the Pyrrhonists through their Philosophy 397
SECTION II.
THE OLD, MIDDLE, AND NEW ACADEMY 399
The Probable Substituted for the Absolute 400
SECTION III.
CONTINUATION OF THE ARISTOTELIAN SCHOOLS 403
SECTION IV.
NEO-PLATONISM 404
General Reflections on the Grecian Evolution in Philosophy 409
PAGE
Verification of our Statement in Regard to the Number and Character of all
Possible and Actual Systems of Philosophy 409
The Systems present or wanting in the Grecian, and common or peculiar to
Oriental and Modern Schools 410
In what Sense and Form was Grecian Philosophy Introductory to Christianity? 413
PART III.
BOOK II.
THE CHRISTIAN EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION I.
DOCTRINE, OR HYPOTHESIS, OF ULTIMATE CAUSATION 416
The Doctrine of Providence 418
Relations of the above Doctrines to Science 419
SECTION II.
ONTOLOGY OF THE BIBLE 421
Relations of Science to the Doctrines of Scriptural Ontology 423
SECTION III.
THE MORALITY OF THE SCRIPTURES 426
SECTION IV.
SPECIAL AND PECULIAR DOCTRINES OF CHRISTIANITY 428
The Tri-Unity of the Godhead 428
Revealed Relations of these Tri-Personalities to one Another 430
Considerations which Commend this Doctrine to our Reason and Judgment 432
The Doctrine of Incarnation and Atonement 433
Relations of the Doctrine of Incarnation to Reason and Science 434
ATONEMENT.
Relation of this Doctrine to Reason and Science 435
Relations of God to Believers as a Hearer of Prayer 436
Relations of this Doctrine to the Teachings of Science 437
BOOK II.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN ERA.
SECTION I.
RELATIONS BETWEEN THEISM PROPER AND CHRISTIAN THEISM 440
Christian Theism renders infinitely more distinct and impressive the Real Verities
apprehended through Natural Theism 441
Christian Theism extends our Vision of Troth beyond the possible reach of
Natural Theism 443
PAGE
Christian Theism confirms and reaffirms the Validity of the Doctrine of God as
taught by Natural Theology 444
SECTION II.
THE RELATIONS OF CHRISTIAN THEISM TO THE SCIENCE OF COSMOLOGY 445
The Question of the Reality of these Facts, to be determined, first of all, wholly
irrespective of their bearing upon the Claims of the Christian Religion 446
SECTION III.
RELATIONS OF SUPERNATURAL EVENTS, AND THE ACTIONS OF A SUPERNATURAL POWER
OF NATURE, TO THE SO-CALLED LAWS OF NATURE 447
SECTION IV.
SUPERNATURAL OR MIRACULOUS EVENTS DEFINEDTHEIR POSSIBILITY AND PROBABILITY
THEIR BEARING UPON THE CLAIMS OF CHRISTIAN RELIGION 448
Such Events Defined 448
Conditions of the Possibility or Probability of the Occurrence of Supernatural
Events 449
The Knowledge which all who affirm the Impossibility, Improbability, or
Non-actuality of Supernatural Events do, in reality, assume the possession of 449
Conditions on which we are Absolutely Bound to admit the Actual Occurrence
of Supernatural Events 451
Conditions on which we may Properly withhold Assent to the Actuality of
Supernatural Events affirmed to have occurred 452
Relations of these Events to the Christian Religion 453
Relations of these Events to the Christian Scriptures 454
SECTION V.
REVELATION AND INSPIRATION. 456
Terms Defined 465
SECTION VI.
NEEDFUL EXPLANATIONS 461
Special Explanations 461
SECTION VII.
OBJECTIONS ANSWERED 465
SECTION VIII.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE EARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 473
An Example of the Philosophic Teachings of the Leading Doctors of the
Primitive Church 374
SECTION IX.
ANTI-CHRISTIAN SPECULATIONS. 477
Oriental Doctrines. 478
The Graeco-Oriental Philosophy 480
PAGE
SECTION X.
CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE AS CORRUPTED BY 'SCIENCE FALSELY SO-CALLED' 481
CHAPTER III.
THE MEDIAEVAL EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
The Rise of Scholasticism 482
Scholasticism in its Primal Form 483
This Doctrine Verified 484
Scholasticism in its Final Form 487
The Nominalism and Realism of the Middle Ages 489
The Mysticism of the Middle Ages 491
The Teachings of Thomas Aquinas 499
Decline and Fall of Scholasticism 501
The Dogma that Doubt is a Pre-requisite Condition of Knowledge 503
The Real Place of 'Prudential Doubt' in Science 507
Heterodox Teachings and Systems of the Middle Ages 508
Scientific Problems discussed in the Middle Ages 511
Puerility of the Questions agitated by the Schoolmen compared with those
common in other Eras 512
The Main Problems agitated by the Schoolmen not Puerile 514
THE MODERN EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
INTRODUCTION.
PAGE
The True Idea of Science 519
Necessary Ideas and General Notions or Conceptions distinguished 520 Necessary Judgments Intuitively True, and General Judgments or Propositions 521
Distinguishing Characteristics of Necessary Principles 524
Fundamental Error of Kant in respect to Necessary Intuitive Judgments 525
Relations of General and Synthetical Judgments to Science 530
Facts of Science 531
Immutable Condition on which the Validity of Original Intuition in any
Form can be Invalidated 533
Criteria of Valid Deductions in Science 534
Conditions of Refutation 534
Conditions of Disproof 535
Objections to a Given Proposition or Hypothesis, when Valid 536
Method of Refuting Objections, or the Forms in which they may be Refuted 537
Inconceivability as a Test of Truth 538
The Term 'Inconceivable,' as Employed in Science, Defined 538
The Secondary Meaning of this Term 539
Platonic Ideas 540
The Central Problem which now lies out for Solution within the Sphere of
Scientific Thought 541
Fundamental Defects in the Anglo-Saxon and German 542
Methods of Developing Systems of Science 542
Anglo-Saxon Thinking 548
German Thinkers
CHAPTER I.
BACON TO REID.
SECTION I.
Bacon 550
Origin of Scientific Principles 552
Origin of False Systems of Philosophy 552
What did Bacon really do for Science? 554
End and Aim of Induction according to Bacon 555
Fundamental False Principle announced by Bacon 555
The Doctrine of Method as Understood by Bacon 556
General Remarks upon this Doctrine 557
Principles of Science, how Originated 560
Common Sense defined, together with its Relations to Science 561
Common Error in regard to Investigation and Discovery of Truth, and
Reasoning and Proof 561
PAGE
SECTION II.
Hobbes and Gassendi 562
Theory of Hobbes 563
The Moral and Political System of Hobbes Theory of Gassendi 564
Remarks upon these Systems 565
SECTION III.
John Locke 568
The Special Peculiarities of the System of Locke 569
General Remarks upon this Theory 570
Systems possibly deducible from the Principles of Locke 578
Different Hypotheses in Respect to the origin of Necessary Ideas and of
Self-evident, Universal, and Necessary Judgments in the Mind 580
Hypothesis of Hume, Mill, and others of their School 580
Hypothesis of Kant, and of the Transcendental School 581
The Realistic Hypothesis 584
Philosophical Systems deduced from the Theory of Locke 584
Systems of Materialism deduced from the Theory of Locke 585
Materialism in England 585
Materialism in France 587
Condillac 587
The Sensational Hypothesis as stated by Diderot 587
Helvrtius, D'Holbach, and La Mettrie 589
That which peculiarizes Modern Materialism 591
The Doctrine of Idealism, as Developed from the Principles of L Berkeley 593
Metaphysical Phantom of Professor Ferrier 596
The Attempt to identify the Doctrine of Idealism with 'the Ordinary Belief
of Mankind' 597
The Sceptical Deductions from the Principles of Locke. 598
David Hume 598
The Basis-Principle of the Sceptical Philosophy 601
The Dilemma in which the Sceptical Philosophy is Involved 603
Hume's Avenue of Escape from the Dilemma under Consideration 603
Hume's and the Sceptical Contradictions 603
Lewes's Criticism of Reid's Criticism of Hume 604
Reaction in the Direction of Realism or Common-Sense. Reid, Beattie,
Dugald-Stewart, Jouffroy 606
The Doctrine of Realism, or Common-Sense, Defined and Elucidated 607
Realistic Principle and Postulate 608
Representative and Presentative Forms of Knowledge 608
The Realistic Deduction 609
The Claims of Realism, as Contrasted with those of Idealism, Materialism,
and Scepticism 610
PAGE
Realism accords, in all its Teachings, with the Absolute Testimony of every
Individual Consciousness, and the Intuitive Convictions of the Race 610
The Doctrines of Realism can by no Possibility be Disproved 610
This Doctrine Verified by the Highest Conceivable Forms of Proof 611
Why are the Claims of Realism Impeached? 612
CHAPTER II.
THE GERMAN EVOLUTION IN PHILOSOPHY.
I. Descartes 614
The Method of Descartes 615
This Principle renders Certitude, in any form, of Impossible Attainment 616
This Principle of no Logical Consequence 617
The Deduction from the Principle invalid 617
The Use which Descartes makes of the Principle, Cogito, ergo sum, as a
Universal Criterion of Truth 618
Benedict Spinoza 620
Moral Teachings of Spinoza 620
Spinoza's Doctrine of Being 621
Leibnitz 622
His System Stated 622
The Influence of Leibnitz in the Sphere of World-Thought 625
CHAPTER III.
KANT TO HEGEL.SYSTEMS OF IDEALISM PERFECTED THROUGH GERMAN THOUGHT.
SECTION I.
General Statements Pertaining to these Systems 626
Points of Agreement and Disagreement between the Expounders of the
System in its Various Forms 627
Promises and Professions with which these Forms of Idealism were Introduced
to the World 629
What we Propose to Prove in Regard to all these Systems 630
SECTION II.
Ideal Dualism.Immanuel Kant 630
Postulate common to all these Systems 630
General Remarks upon the Two Systems, Realism and Idealism 632
The Real Object of Perception according to Kant and Idealism universally 635
The Originating Cause of Sensation, according to Kant and other Idealists 636
The Law of Perception, according to Kant and Idealism universally 637
The Origin of á Priori or Necessary Ideas and Principles, according to Kant
and idealism 639
Hypothesis stated 639 Errors Involved in the above Hypothesis 639
PAGE
Kant's Definition of these Judgments 641
The Fundamental Problem in Philosophy according to Kant 642
Kant's, as Contrasted with the True Solution of this Problem 642
Kant's Solution 643
The True Solution of this Problem 646
An Example of Fundamental Error, together with the Manner in which it and
Similar Errors are Inserted into the Sphere of Science 648
Kant's 'Antinomies of Pure Reason' 649
Conditions on which the Existence of such Antinomies can be Verified 650
These Antinomies of Impossible Validity 651
Special Criticisms of these Antinomies 654
General Remarks upon these Antinomies 662
Conclusion of our Criticism of Kant and of Ideal Dualism 662
SECTION III.
Subjective Idealism.Johann Gottlieb Fichte 663
Common Doctrine of Idealism in all its Forms, and the Logical Consequences
of that Doctrine 663
Fichte's Basis Principle of all True Science 664
Critical Remarks upon this Principle 665
Fundamental Assumptions which, as Principles, Lie at the Basis of Subjective
Idealism 667
Fichte's Criterion of Absolute Knowledge 668
The Necessary Moral and Religious Deductions of Subjective Idealism 669
SECTION IV.
Pantheism Proper. Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling 671
Pantheism Defined 671
Theism and Pantheism Contrasted 672
Bearing of Pantheism upon the Idea of the Existence of the Human Race 673
General Remarks upon the System 673
I. All Rationale must intuitively and necessarily Recognize the System as
Absolute Error 673
II. Pantheism cannot be Verified on Scientific Grounds 674
III. Pantheism Falls to Pieces on every Principle recognized as such by Idealism
in any of its Forms 675
IV. Evidence actually Relied Upon to Prove this System.Its Source and
Origin Explained 676
SECTION V.
Pure Idealism.George Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 681
Schelling and Hegel 681
Ancient and Modern Idealism 681
The System Defined 683
Its General Characteristics 686
Specific Criticism on this System 689
PAGE
I. It has no Scientific Basis 689
II. It is Absolutely Impossible in Thought to Represent this System as True 690
III. The Monstrous Deductions of the System verify it as a System of False
Science 692
IV. Nothing good can be said of the System 693
V. Neither Hegel, nor any other Thinker, ever did or can fully believe this
System 694
General Remarks upon Idealism 695
I. It is constructed throughout upon Assumptions which beg all its Deductions,
near and remote 695
II. The Fixed Method of Idealism the most Lawless Conceivable 698
III. The Absurdity of a False Philosophy 699
SECTION VI.
Idealism within the Sphere of Anglo-Saxon Thought. 'Institutes of
Metaphysics,' by the late J. F. Ferrier, Professor of Moral Philosophy and
Political Economy, St. Andrews, Scotland 700
Present State of Philosophic Thought according to our Philosopher 701
What is Philosophy according to our Author? 702
The Elements of which such a System is, according to our Author, Exclusively
Constituted 703
Object and Aim of Philosophy according to our Author 704
Relations of Philosophy to Common-Sense according to our Author 705
Granting the Facts to be as Stated, What shall we do? 706
Our Author's Definition and Canon of Necessary Truth 708
Remarks on this Canon 708
A Great Service done by our Author to Philosophy 709 Very Important Fact and Principle as Stated by our Author 710
The Kantian or Sceptical Expositions of the Relations between Contingent and
Necessary Forms of Thought 710
Professor Ferrier's and the Idealistic Exposition 711
The Hypothesis of Realism 712
The Ontology of our Author 712
Fundamental Characteristics of this System 713
I. It is Constructed Throughout upon a Fundamentally False Method 713
II. In the Construction of his System, our Author Fundamentally Contradicts
his own and the Universal Canon of Necessary Truth 713
III. By our Author's Immutable Canon of Judgment, we are bound to Reject his
System 714
IV. The System is in itself Self-contradictory and Absurd 715
V. The Staple on which this whole System hangs is, in Fact and Form, a
Contingent and not a Necessary Truth, if a Truth at all 716
Our Author's Universal Formula 716
This Formula not a Self-evident or Necessary Truth 717 As Presented by our Author Himself, this Formula, if True, Embodies a
PAGE
Contingent, and not a Necessary Truth 717
Other and True Statements of our Author absolutely Verify his Formula as not,
if True at all, Presenting a Necessary, but Contingent Truth 718
This Formula is Consciously not Necessarily True 719 This is not the True, but a False Formula of Knowledge in its Universal and
Necessary Forms 719
This Formula is perfectly Contradictory to our Author's Exposition of
Philosophic Knowledge 720
This Formula, its Validity being Admitted, lays no Basis whatever for the Ultimate
Deductions of Idealism 720
Concluding Reflections on this Criticism 721
CHAPTER IV.
MATERIALISM IN ITS MOST MODERN FORM.
SECTION I.
Positivism.Comte and Others 722
Comte's Judgment of the Real Scientific Merits of Atheism, on the one hand
and Theism, on the other 723
Positivism Defined 726
Essential Characteristics of the System 728
SECTION II.
The Present Phases of Materialism 731
The Logic of the System.Examples from Professor Huxley 731
Examples from Professor Maudsley 733
Professor Maudsley's Method of Mental Science 734
Examples of our Professor's Inductions and Deductions 736
Remarks upon the above Deductions 737
SECTION III.
Materialism as presented in such Productions as those of Dr. Lous
Buchner 739
Facts and Principles formerly Stated and Verified 740
Mistake of Buchner and others, in respect to the Relations of External Nature
to Mind 743
SECTION IV.
THE UTILITY OF MATERIALISM AS ESTIMATED BY ITS ADVOCATES 743
SECTION V.
SPECIFIC AND SPECIAL DOGMAS OF MATERIALISM 746
SECTION VI.
THE BASIS ASSUMPTION OF MATERIALISM 748
Proof Presented of the Validity of this Assumption 748
The Illusion and Error of Materialism here 749
PAGE
SECTION VII.
FUNDAMENTAL MISAPPREHENSION OF THE REAL ISSUE BETWEEN MATERIAL IS AND
REALISM, OR THEISM 751
SECTION VIII.
THE LOGIC OF MATERIALISTS 753
Reliability of our Author and Scientists of his School in the Statement of Facts 757
Concluding Reflections 759
SECTION IX.
THE THREE FUNDAMENTAL DOCTRINES OF MODERN NATURALISMEVOLUTION
SPONTANEOUS GENERATIONAND DEVELOPMENT, OR TRANSMUTATION OF SPECIES 760
Terms Defined 760
The Proposition which we Propose to Verify relatively to these Doctrines 760
The Two Distinct and Opposite Hypotheses 761
Opinions of Scientists best qualified to judge of the Nature of the Evidence
presented 761
The Forms of Positive Evidence actually Presented 765
Argument Based upon Facts of 'Embryonic Development' 770
Argument Based upon Facts pertaining to Rudimentary Organs 770
Argument Based upon the General Relations of the Forms and Classes of
Vitalized Existence 771
Variations of Species Produced by Natural Selection and other Causes 774
Argument Based upon the Unverified Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation 776
Evidence Bearing upon the General Doctrine of Evolution 777
Forms of Evidence which Disprove this Theory 780
Deduction from Man's Place in Creation 782
SECTION X.
THE DOGMATISM OF MODERN NATURALISTS 784
Tyndall's Doctrine of the Scientific Use of the Imagination 784
Huxley's Sophistries Exposed 784
Tyndall's Theory Specifically Expounded and Refuted 785
An Illustrative Example of the 'Scientific Use of the Imagination' 787
Darwin's Drafts upon Time 788
Tyndall's Exposition of the Final Cause of Affirmed Facts of Transmutation and
Evolution 791
What We Can and Cannot Know of Matter 792
CHAPTER V.
THE NEW PHILOSOPHY.
SECTION I.
THE GOLDEN RULE OF SCIENCE ACCORDING TO THE ADVOCATES OF THIS PHILOSOPHY 796
SECTION II.
REALITIES OF WHICH, ACCORDING TO SPENCER, OUR IGNORANCE IS AND EVER MUST BE
ABSOLUTE 797
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Granting the Validity of these Deductions, What can we Know? 799
What must be the General Character o£ the Logical Processes by which these
Deductions can be Verified? 801
Spencer's Estimate of the Real Validity of his own Logic 802
The Actual and Specific Character of the Logical Processes by which Spencer
reaches these Deductions 802
Important Mis-statement of Facts 802
Spencer's professed Invalidation of all our 'Ultimate Religious Ideas' 805
Terms 'Inconceivable' and 'Absurd' Defined 805
The Sources of Spencer's False Deductions 807
Spencer's Professed Invalidation of 'Ultimate Religious Ideas' 808
Spencer's Argument to Reduce 'Ultimate Religious Ideas' under the Category of
the Absurd 811
The Consolation which Spencer offers us, on account of our being Robbed of
our God and our Religion 812
Spencer's Professed Invalidation of all Ultimate scientific ideas Time and Space 812
Spencer's Criticisms on Matter 816
Spencer's Criticism on the Doctrine of Motion 817
Spencer's Criticism on the Doctrine of Force 820
Spencer's Doctrine on 'the Duration of Consciousness' 821
Spencer on the Doctrine of Personal Existence 823
Spencer's Doctrine of the Relativity of all Knowledge 827
The Doctrine Explained or Defined 827
Admitting the Validity of Spencer's Arguments which we have Examined,
Phenomena must be as Unknowable as are the Realities which exist behind
Appearances 828
This Doctrine Totally Ignores and Confounds the Fundamental Distinctions
which Actually Exist between Different Classes of Phenomena 829
The Doctrine of the 'Relativity of all Knowledge' is not Intuitively True, an
cannot be Verified by Argument 830
This Doctrine has no other Basis than a mere Lawless Assumption, an
Assumption not only not Sustained by any Form or Degree of Real Evidence,
but most palpably False 831
Forms of Absolute Knowledge do Exist, Forms which are neither Phenomenal
nor Relative 832
SECTION III.
SPENCER'S DOCTRINE OF SCIENCE OR PHILOSOPHY 833
SECTION IV.
THE DATA OF PHILOSOPHY ACCORDING TO SPENCER 834
The Starting-point of Philosophy, according to Spencer 834
Remarks upon this Doctrine 835
Spencer's assumed Doctrine in Philosophy 835
Reflections on these Data 837
PAGE
These Data contradict our Author's previously affirmed Doctrine of the
Impossibility of Self-knowledge 837
According to Spencer, Consciousness is utterly Mendacious in its most, and
full Trustworthy in its less, Absolute Dicta 837
We must utterly Repudiate Spencer and the Possibility of Philosophy, or fully
Admit the Claims of Realism 838
The fixed Method of Spencer and the Disciples of the New Philosophy in
Constructing their System 839
What is Knowledge, or Knowing, according to Spencer? 839
This Doctrine renders the Commencement of Cognition Absolutely Impossible 841
This Doctrine Self-contradictory and Absurd 841
The Character of Spencer's System, commonly called the New Philosophy 842
The Ultimate Datum of Philosophy according to Spencer 843
The Fixed Direction which Philosophic Thought and Enquiry should no Take 844
The Direction given to Philosophic Thought by Spencer and the Advocates
of the New Philosophy 845
Spencer's Classification of all Manifestations as Faint and Vivid 847
Spencer's Definitions of Space, Time, Matter, Motion, Force, and other Terms 848
Definitions of the terms 'Phenomenon' and 'Appearance' 849
The terms 'Real' and 'Reality,' as Defined by Spencer 850
Spencer's Definition of Space and Time 852
Spencer's Definition of Matter 853
Spencer's Definition of Motion 854
Spencer's Definition of Force 854
Spencer's Perfected Idea of the Mission of Philosophy 856
Mission of Philosophy 856
The Mission of Philosophy as required by Spencer's Avowed Principles and
Facts, and as finally Avowed by Himself 858
The Moral Integrity of Scepticism 859
The Real Scientific Value of such Deductions 861
Spencer's Doctrine of the Indestructibility of Matter 863
The Meaning of the term 'Matter' in this Chapter 863
Spencer's Argument Relative to the Eternity of Matter and that of God 866
Spencer's Real Estimate of the Value of the Doctrine of the Indestructibility
of Matter 866
The Validity of Spencer's Philosophy Tested in the Light of His own Criterion
of such-Validity 866
Spencer's Doctrine of Motion 867
Spencer's Doctrine of Force 868
Doctrine Stated 868
Spencer's Partialism 869
The Character of Spencer's 'Ultimate of Ultimates,' viz., Force 870
Spencer's Reason for Rejecting the Theistic, and Adopting the Atheistic
Hypothesis, in regard to the Character of the 'Ultimate of Ultimates' 872
PAGE
In the above Passage, Spencer's Blank Atheism becomes Undeniably Manifest 873
Spencer's Definition of Mind 874
Character of Spencer's Argument 875
The Conceivable and Inconceivable, the Possible and Impossible, according to
Spencer 876
General Characteristics of the New Philosophy 877
SECTION V.
CONCLUDING REFLECTIONS 886
The Number and Genesis of all Possible Systems of Philosophy Designated 888
Necessary Logical Consequences of the above Facts 890
The Influence of these Systems upon the Race, should their Dominion become
Universal 892
The Future of these Godless Philosophies 899
APPENDIX.
CHAPTER I.
HOW IT IS THAT PROFESSEDLY SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE NOT UNFREQUENTLY REPRESENTS NO IDEAS OF ANY KIND WHATEVER
SECTION I.
AN ATTEMPT TO REPRESENT MENTAL OPERATIONS AS MATERIAL FACTS 906
SECTION II.
THE ATTEMPT TO EXPLAIN FACTS AND PROPERTIES OF MATTER AS PHENOMENA OF
MIND 908
SECTION III.
ASSUMING THAT WHICH CAN BE CONCEIVED OF BUT AS AN ATTRIBUTE OF SOME
KNOWN SUBSTANCE, AS IN ITSELF A REAL EXISTING THING, AND THE SUBSTANCE OF
REALITIES AS ACTUALLY MANIFESTED TO THE MIND 910
SECTION IV.
ASSUMING ALL REALITIES TO BE UNKNOWABLE AND UNKNOWN, AND THEN ATTEMPTING
FROM THIS STANDPOINT TO EXPLAIN THE UNIVERSE 918
CHAPTER II.
INDICATIONS OF THE PLAN OF A WORK WHICH, FOR WANT OF
TIME, WILL PROBABLY NEVER APPEAR 927
CHAPTER III.
THE TRUE PHILOSOPHY.
Characteristics of the True System 937
General Classification and Division of all Mental Phenomena and Faculties 937
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The Intellectual Faculties 938
The Primary Faculties 938
General Remarks upon the above Classification of the Facts and Faculties of
Primitive Intuition 940
The Chronological and Logical Order of these Intuitions 940
Fundamental Errors of the Schools in respect to these Intuitions 940
Each of the Primary Faculties has, within its own Exclusive Sphere, Equal and
Absolute Authority for Truth 941
Fundamental Characteristics of all True and False Systems of Cosmology 942
The Secondary Intellectual Faculties 943
Conceptions and the Faculty which they imply, that is, the Conceptive Faculty,
or the Understanding 943
Spirit, Matter, Time, and Space, the only Realities actually represented or
representable in Human Thought 944
Our Real Apprehensions of neither of these Realities can, by no possibility, be
Self-contradictory or Absurd 944 Fundamental Error of Spencer in regard to Conceptions 945 Real or Absolutely Valid Conceptions, as distinguished from those which
have only a Relative Validity 945
Conceivability and Inconceivability as Tests of Truth 946
On what Conditions can Matter be Identified with Spirit, or Spirit with Matter? 947
How it is that all real Meaning so often drops out of Language as employed by
the Schools 948
The Faculty of Judgment 949
Principles in Science 950
Facts of Science 951
Deductions which are Valid for Truth 951
Error, how Introduced into Thought, that of Science especially 952
Principles of Science, and Assumptions employed as Principles 953
Knowledge in its Real and Valid Forms as distinguished from all Forms of mere
Opinion, Belief, Conjecture, etc. 955
Assumptions in respect to Valid and Invalid Hypotheses 956
Assumptions within the Sphere of Valid and Invalid Deduction 956
The Sentiment Induced in the Mind by Lawless Assumption 957
Common Error in Regard to the Basis of Religious Faith 959
Memory and the Imagination 960
Recapitulation of the above Analysis of the Mental Faculties 961
Character of the System of Mental Science indicated by the above Analysis 961
1. Its Completeness and Perfection 961
2. This System fully Explains and Determines the Origin, Character, and
Special and Peculiar Spheres of all the Sciences 962
3. This System Explains the Origin and Character of Error in all its Forms,
and furnishes Infallible Criteria by which Truth may be Distinguished
from Error 963
PAGE
4. This System Absolutely Vindicates for Realism, in all its forms, a Strictly
Scientific Basis and Validity 964
5. The above Analysis and Elucidation of the Mental Faculties renders
Demonstrably Evident the Fact that all Systems Opposed to Realism have
no other Basis than Lawless Assumption 965 Fundamental Errors in the Common Systems of Mental Science 967
1. All in common fail to Recognize the Element of Implied Knowledge, and
Reason as the Organ of such Knowledge 967
2. Many of these Treatises fundamentally err in their Enumeration of the
Mental Faculties 968
3. Others admit the Reality of the Reason, but, by mislocating the Faculty,
darken instead of elucidate the Science of Mind 968
APPENDIX II.
INDEX OF PHILOSOPHERS AND PEOPLE IN HISTORY. 978
APPENDIX III.
LISTING OF WORKS BY ASA MAHAN. 985
FOREWORD BY THE PRESENT EDITOR.
VOLUME I. & II. INDEX.
General Introduction.
Part I. The Oriental Philosophy.
Part II. The Grecian Philosophy.
Part III. The Christian Evolution in Philosophy.
A Critical History of Philosophy. By Asa Mahan in 1883. Forward.